Q. What is the difference between DBMS and RDBMS?
Answer: DBMSs are software applications that help you build and maintain databases. RDBMS is a subset of DBMS, and it is a database management system based on the relational model of the DBMS.
Q. Can we embed Pl/SQL in SQL? Justify your answers
Answer: PL/SQL is a procedural language, and it has one or more SQL statements in it. So SQL can be embedded in a PL/SQL block; however, PL/SQL cannot be embedded in a SQL as SQL executes a single query at a time.
DECLARE /* this is a PL/SQL block */
qty_on_hand NUMBER(5);
BEGIN
SELECT quantity INTO qty_on_hand FROM inventory /* this is the SQL statement embedded in the PL/SQL block */
WHERE product = 'TENNIS RACKET';
END;
Q. What do you mean by data manipulation language – DML?
Answer: DML includes most common SQL statements to store, modify, delete, and retrieve data. They are SELECT, UPDATE, INSERT and DELETE.
INSERT INTO table_name /* Insert is a DML statement */
VALUES (value, value, value …)
INSERT INTO customers /* data being inserted in the table customers */
VALUES (‘George’ , 'Washington' , 'Connecticut')
Q. What is a join in SQL? What are the types of joins?
Answer: A join is used to query data from multiple tables based on the relationship between the fields.
There are four types of joins.
- Inner Join
Rows are returned when there is at least one match of rows between the tables.
select first_name, last_name, order_date, order_amount
from customers c
inner join orders o
on c.customer_id = o.customer_id
/* customers and orders are two tables. Data will be displayed from the two tables where the customer_id from customer table matches
The customer_id from the orders table. */
- Right Join
Right, join returns all rows from the right table and those which are shared between the tables. If there are no matching rows in the left table, it will still return all the rows from the right table.
select first_name, last_name, order_date, order_amount
from customers c
left join orders o
on c.customer_id = o.customer_id
/* customers and orders are two tables. All rows from the Orders table is returned with matching rows from the Customers table if any */
- Left Join
Left join returns all rows from the Left table and those which are shared between the tables. If there are no matching rows in the right table, it will still return all the rows from the left table.
select first_name, last_name, order_date, order_amount
from customers c
left join orders o
on c.customer_id = o.customer_id
/* customers and orders are two tables. All rows from the customers table is returned with matching rows from the orders table if any */
- Full Join
Full join return rows when there are matching rows in any one of the tables. This means it returns all the rows from the left-hand side table and all the rows from the right-hand side table.
select first_name, last_name, order_date, order_amount
from customers c
full join orders o
on c.customer_id = o.customer_id
/* customers and orders are two tables. All rows from the Orders table and customer table are returned */
Q. What is the difference between CHAR and VARCHAR2 datatype in SQL?
Answer: CHAR is used to store fixed-length character strings, and VARCHAR2 is used to store variable-length character strings.
For example, suppose you store the string ‘Database’ in a CHAR(20) field and a VARCHAR2(20) field.
The CHAR field will use 22 bytes (2 bytes for leading length).
The VARCHAR2 field will use 10 bytes only (8 for the string, 2 bytes for leading length).
Q. What is a trigger?
Answer: Triggers are stored programs that get automatically executed when an event such as INSERT, DELETE, UPDATE(DML) statement occurs. Triggers can also be evoked in response to Data definition statements(DDL) and database operations, for example, SERVER ERROR, LOGON.
create trigger dbtrigger
on database
for
create_table,alter_table,drop_table
as
print'you can not create ,drop and alter table in this database'
rollback;
create trigger emptrigger
on emp
for
insert,update,delete
as
print'you can not insert,update and delete this table i'
rollback;
Q. What are ACID properties in a transaction
Answer: In order to maintain consistency in a database ‘before and after’ transactions, certain properties are followed. They are
- Atomicity: This means the transaction must happen fully and cannot be left midway.
- Consistency: To maintain integrity constraints hence valid data enters the database
- Isolation: Controls Concurrency
- Durability: Once a transaction is committed it remains committed
Q. What is Dateadd SQL?
Answer: Dateadd is a function that is used to add a number to specified part of the date and returns the modified date. Syntax- DATEADD (date_part, value, input_date); Date part can be as below-
| date_part | abbreviations |
| Year | yy, yyyy |
| Quarter | qq, q |
| Month | mm, m |
| dayofyear | dy, y |
| Day | dd, d |
| Week | wk, ww |
| Hour | hh |
| Minute | mi, n |
| Second | ss, s |
| millisecond | ms |
| microsecond | mcs |
| nanosecond | ns |
Q. What is SAVEPOINT in a transaction control
Answer: A SAVEPOINT is a point in a transaction when you can roll the transaction back to a certain point without rolling back the entire transaction.
SQL> SAVEPOINT A
SQL> INSERT INTO TEST VALUES (1,'Savepoint A');
1 row inserted.
SQL> SAVEPOINT B
SQL> INSERT INTO TEST VALUES (2,'Savepoint B');
1 row inserted.
SQL> ROLLBACK TO B;
Rollback complete.
SQL> SELECT * FROM TEST;
ID MSG
-------- -----------
1 Savepoint A
Q. What are the scalar functions in SQL? Give an example
Answer: Scalar Functions are used to return a single value based on the input values. Scalar Functions are as follows:
- UCASE(): Converts the specified field in upper case
SELECT UCASE("SQL Tutorial is FUN!") AS UppercaseText;
UppercaseText
SQL TUTORIAL IS FUN!
- LCASE(): Converts the specified field in lower case
Q. What is a cursor, and when do you use it?
Answer: A cursor is a database object which is used to manipulate data by traversing row by row in a result set. A cursor is used when you need to retrieve data, one row at a time from a result set and when you need to update records one row at a time.
DECLARE @CustomerId INT
,@Name VARCHAR(100)
,@Country VARCHAR(100)
--DECLARE AND SET COUNTER.
DECLARE @Counter INT
SET @Counter = 1
--DECLARE THE CURSOR FOR A QUERY.
DECLARE PrintCustomers CURSOR READ_ONLY
FOR
SELECT CustomerId, Name, Country
FROM Customers
--OPEN CURSOR.
OPEN PrintCustomers
--FETCH THE RECORD INTO THE VARIABLES.
FETCH NEXT FROM PrintCustomers INTO
@CustomerId, @Name, @Country
--LOOP UNTIL RECORDS ARE AVAILABLE.
WHILE @@FETCH_STATUS = 0
BEGIN
IF @Counter = 1
BEGIN
PRINT 'CustomerID' + CHAR(9) + 'Name' + CHAR(9) + CHAR(9) + CHAR(9) + 'Country'
PRINT '------------------------------------'
END
--PRINT CURRENT RECORD. PRINT CAST(@CustomerId AS VARCHAR(10)) + CHAR(9) + CHAR(9) + CHAR(9) + @Name + CHAR(9) + @Country
--INCREMENT COUNTER.
SET @Counter = @Counter + 1
--FETCH THE NEXT RECORD INTO THE VARIABLES.
FETCH NEXT FROM PrintCustomers INTO
@CustomerId, @Name, @Country
END
--CLOSE THE CURSOR.
CLOSE PrintCustomers
DEALLOCATE PrintCustomers
Q. What is a set-based solution?
Answer: Cursors operate on individual rows, and in case of a set, it works on a resultant set of data, which could be a table/view or a join of both. The resultant set is an output of a SQL query.
Q. What is a forward cursor?
Answer: Forward cursors support fetching of rows from start to end from a result set. You cannot go to the previous row in the result set.
Q. State one situation where the set-based solution is advantageous over the cursor-based solution
Answer: Set-based solutions provide better performance as they work on a result set and not on one row at a time. They are concise and more readable.
Q. What is normalization and what are the normal forms
Answer: Normalization is a process in database design to minimize data redundancy and dependency. The database is divided into two or more tables, and relationships are defined between them.
- First Normal Form: Every record is unique in a table and is identified by a primary or a composite key
StudiD Name Phonenum
-----------------------
1 John 9176612345,9176645698
2 Susie 9176645789
3 Jim 9176696325
In the above table the field ‘phonenum’ is a multi-valued attribute, so it is not in 1NF.
Below Table is in 1NF as there is no multi-valued attribute
StudiD Name Phonenum
------------------
1 John 9176612345
1 John 9176645698
2 Susie 9176645789
3 Jim 9176696325
- Second Normal Form: The table must be in First Normal Form, and it should have a single column as its primary key.2NF tries to reduce the redundant data getting stored in memory. To bring the above table in 2NF we split the table into two tables
StudiD Name /* student table */
1. John
2 Susie
3. Jim
StudiD Phonenum /* studentphonenumber table */
------------------
1 9176612345
1 9176645698
2 9176645789
3 9176696325
- Third Normal Form: The table must be in Second Normal Form and must have no transitive functional dependencies. I.e., a non-key column must not be dependent on another non-key column within the same table.’
Consider the EMPLOYEE_DETAIL table: This table is not in the third normal form because the fields emp_state
and emp_city depend on emp_zip and not on the primary key emp_id.
| EMP_ID | EMP_NAME | EMP_ZIP | EMP_STATE | EMP_CITY |
| 222 | Harry | 201010 | CT | Monroe |
| 333 | Stephan | 02228 | TX | Dallas |
| 444 | Lan | 060007 | IL | Chicago |
The above table is split into 2 tables and now the tables are in the third normal form.
EMPLOYEE table:
| EMP_ID | EMP_NAME | EMP_ZIP |
| 222 | Harry | 201010 |
| 333 | Stephan | 02228 |
| 444 | Lan | 060007 |
EMPLOYEE_ZIP table:
| EMP_ZIP | EMP_STATE | EMP_CITY |
| 201010 | CT | Monroe |
| 02228 | TX | Dallas |
| 060007 | IL | Chicago |
Q. What is de-normalization, and when do you go for it?
Answer: De-normalization is a technique sometimes used to improve performance so the table design allows redundant data to avoid complex joins. If the application involves heavy read operations, then de-normalization is used at the expense of the write operations performance.
Q. What is a primary key, a foreign key, and unique key
Answer:
- The primary key is a field in the table which uniquely identifies a row. It cannot be NULL
- A foreign key is a field in one table, which is a primary key in another table. A relationship is created between the two tables by referencing the foreign key of one table with the primary key of another table.
In the example below, the employee_id_ref in the salary table is the foreign key.
- Unique Key uniquely identifies a record in a table. There can be many unique key constraints defined on a table.
| EMP_ID | EMP_NAME | Government_ID |
| 222 | Harry | 111-203-987 |
| 333 | Stephan | 789-456-123 |
| 444 | Lan | 745-562-321 |
#BBD0E0 »
In the table above Emp_id is the primary key however Government_id is the unique key. You may want the Government_id to be unique for every employee. Since the data belongs to the government, you may not want it to be the primary key.
Q. What are clustered indexes and non-clustered indexes?
Answer: A table can have only one clustered index. In this type of index, it reorders the table based on the key values and physically stores them in that order.
The non-clustered index does not have the physical ordering of the data in the table it has a logical order.
CREATE CLUSTERED INDEX IX_tblStudent_Gender_Score
ON student(gender ASC, total_score DESC)
The above script creates a clustered index named “IX_tblStudent_Gender_Score” on the student table. This index is created on the “gender” and “total_score” columns. An index that is created on more than one column is called the “composite index”.
A non-clustered index doesn’t sort the physical data inside the table. A non-clustered index is stored in one place, and table data is stored in another place. This allows for more than one non-clustered index per table.
CREATE NONCLUSTERED INDEX IX_tblStudent_Name
ON student(name ASC)
The above script creates a non-clustered index on the “name” column of the student table — the index sorts by name in ascending order. The table data and index will be stored in different places.
Question: What is T-SQL?
Answer: It is an extension of SQL(Structured Query Language) developed by Sybase and used by Microsoft.
Q. What are system functions and give one example
Answer: System functions are operations performed on the database server, and values are returned accordingly. Example @@ERROR – Returns 0 if the previous Transact-SQL statement encountered no errors. Otherwise returns an error number.
@@ERROR - Returns 0 if the previous Transact-SQL statement encountered no errors.
Otherwise returns an error number.
Q. What is a transaction log?
Answer: A log is an audit trail file where the history of actions executed by the DBMS is stored.
Q. How do you maintain database integrity where deletions from one table will automatically cause deletions in another table?
Answer: ON DELETE CASCADE is a command that is used when deletions happen in the parent table, and all child records are automatically deleted, and the child table is referenced by the foreign key in the parent table.
CREATE TABLE products
( product_id INT PRIMARY KEY,
product_name VARCHAR(50) NOT NULL,
category VARCHAR(25)
);
CREATE TABLE inventory
( inventory_id INT PRIMARY KEY,
product_id INT NOT NULL,
quantity INT,
min_level INT,
max_level INT,
CONSTRAINT fk_inv_product_id
FOREIGN KEY (product_id)
REFERENCES products (product_id)
ON DELETE CASCADE
);
The Products table is the parent table and the inventory table is the child table. If a productid is deleted from the parent table all the inventory records for that productid will be deleted from the child table
Q. What is the difference between SQL and MySQL?
Answer: SQL is a structured query language used to access the DBMS whereas MYSQL is an Open Source Relational DBMS.
Q. Can we use TRUNCATE with a WHERE clause?
Answer: No, we cannot use TRUNCATE with the WHERE clause.
Q. Define COMMIT
Answer: When a COMMIT is used in a transaction all changes made in the transaction are written into the database permanently.
BEGIN TRANSACTION;
DELETE FROM HumanResources.JobCandidate
WHERE JobCandidateID = 13;
COMMIT TRANSACTION;
The above example deletes a job candidate in a SQL server.
Q. What does CHECK CONSTRAINT do?
Answer: Check Constraint limits the values that can enter a column in a database table. It is used as an integrity constraint check.
The following SQL creates a CHECK constraint on the “Age” column when the “Persons” table is created. The CHECK constraint ensures that you can not have any person below 18 years:
The syntax below is in MySQL.
CREATE TABLE Persons (
ID int NOT NULL,
LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
FirstName varchar(255),
Age int,
CHECK (Age>=18)
);
Q. What is a schema?
Answer: A schema is a collection of database objects in a database for a particular user/owner. Objects can be tables, views, indices and so on.
Q. How can you create an empty table from an existing table?
Answer:
CREATE TABLE NEW_TABLE_NAME AS SELECT [column1, column2 ……column] FROM EXISTING_TABLE_NAME [WHERE ]
Q. What is a composite key?
Answer: When more than one column is used to define the primary key, it is called a composite key.
Here is a SQL syntax to create a composite key in MySQL
CREATE TABLE SAMPLE_TABLE
(COL1 integer,
COL2 varchar(30),
COL3 varchar(50),
PRIMARY KEY (COL1, COL2));
Q. How do you sort records in a table?
Answer: The ORDER BY Clause is used to sort records in a table.
SELECT * FROM Emp ORDER BY salary;
By default, the records are returned in ascending order.
Q. What is a shared lock?
Answer: When two transactions are granted read access to the same data, they are given a shared lock. This enables reading the same data, and data is not updated until the shared lock is released.
Q. What is a deadlock?
Answer: It is an unwanted situation where two or more transactions are waiting indefinitely for one another to release the locks.
Below is an example of a deadlock situation
Q. What is lock escalation?
Answer: Lock escalation is a process of converting row or page locks into table locks. It is an optimization technique used by RDBMS like SQL Server dynamically.
Question: What is SQL injection?
Answer: SQL injection is a code injection technique used to hack data-driven applications.
Q. What are views, and why are they used?
Answer: SQL views are virtual tables created from one or more tables. Views are a subset of data; hence, it can limit the degree of exposure of data from the tables.
The following SQL creates a view that shows all customers from Brazil:
CREATE VIEW Brazil_Customers_view AS
SELECT CustomerName, ContactName
FROM Customers
WHERE Country = "Brazil";
You can query the view above as follows:
SELECT * FROM Brazil_Customers_view;
Q. How do we avoid getting duplicate entries in a query?
Answer: The Select DISTINCT is used to get distinct data from tables using a query
The following SQL statement selects only the DISTINCT values from the “Country” column in the “Customers” table:
SELECT DISTINCT Country FROM Customers;
Q. : Give an example of a comparison operator in SQL
Answer: EQUAL TO written as = is used to compare data values
Q. What is a Subquery?
Answer: A subQuery is a SQL query nested into a larger Query.
SELECT
employee_id, first_name, last_name
FROM
employees
WHERE
department_id IN (SELECT
department_id
FROM
departments
WHERE
location_id = 1700)
ORDER BY first_name , last_name;
The query placed within the parentheses is called a subquery. It is also known as an inner query or inner select. The query that contains the subquery is called an outer query or an outer select.
Q. : What is a Non-correlated subquery
Answer: A Non-Correlated subquery is an independent query, and the output of subquery is substituted in the main query.
Q. What is a SYSTEM Privilege?
Answer: Rights are given to a user, usually by the DBA, to perform a particular action on the database schema objects like creating tablespaces.
The following are examples of system privileges that can be granted to users:
- CREATE TABLE allows a grantee to create tables in the grantee’s schema.
- CREATE USER allows a grantee to create users in the database.
- CREATE SESSION allows a grantee to connect to an Oracle database to create a user session.
Q. What are Object Privileges?
Answer: An object-level privilege is a permission granted to a database user account or role to perform some action on a database object. These object privileges include SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE, ALTER, INDEX on tables, and so on.
The following examples are object privileges that can be granted to users:
- SELECT ON hr.employees TO myuser
- INSERT ON hr.employees TO myuser
Q. What does the BCP command do?
Answer: The BCP (Bulk Copy) is a utility or a tool that exports/imports data from a table into a file and vice versa
Q. What is a NULL Value field?
Answer: A NULL value is a field with No Value.
Q. What does the VARIANCE function do?
Answer: This function returns the VARIANCE of a set of numbers:
CREATE TABLE EMP (EMPNO NUMBER(4) NOT NULL,
ENAME VARCHAR2(10),
JOB VARCHAR2(9),
SAL NUMBER(7, 2),
DEPTNO NUMBER(2));
INSERT INTO EMP VALUES (1, 'SMITH', 'CLERK', 800, 20);
INSERT INTO EMP VALUES (2, 'ALLEN', 'SALESMAN', 1600, 30);
INSERT INTO EMP VALUES (3, 'WARD', 'SALESMAN', 1250, 30);
INSERT INTO EMP VALUES (4, 'JONES', 'MANAGER', 2975, 20);
INSERT INTO EMP VALUES (5, 'MARTIN','SALESMAN', 1250, 30);
INSERT INTO EMP VALUES (6, 'BLAKE', 'MANAGER', 2850, 30);
INSERT INTO EMP VALUES (7, 'CLARK', 'MANAGER', 2850, 10);
INSERT INTO EMP VALUES (8, 'SCOTT', 'ANALYST', 3000, 20);
INSERT INTO EMP VALUES (9, 'KING', 'PRESIDENT',3000, 10);
INSERT INTO EMP VALUES (10,'TURNER','SALESMAN', 1500, 30);
INSERT INTO EMP VALUES (11,'ADAMS', 'CLERK', 1500, 20);
SQL> SELECT VARIANCE(sal)
2 FROM emp;
VARIANCE(SAL)
-------------
759056.818
Q. What is the role of GRANT and REVOKE commands?
Answer: The GRANT command enables privileges on the database objects and the REVOKE command removes them. They are DCL commands
GRANT CREATE ANY TABLE TO username
GRANT sysdba TO username
GRANT DROP ANY TABLE TO username
REVOKE CREATE TABLE FROM username
Q. What is a UNION operator?
Answer: The UNION operator combines the results of two or more Select statements by removing duplicate rows. The columns and the data types must be the same in the SELECT statements.
SELECT City FROM Customers
UNION
SELECT City FROM Suppliers
ORDER BY City;
Q. Where are stored procedures stored in the database?
Answer: Stored Procedures are stored in the Data Dictionary of the Database.
Q. Can we call Stored Procedure inside Stored Procedure?
Answer: Yes, we can call a stored procedure from another stored procedure. For example, Procedure2 is the procedure which is called Procedure1. Both Procedure1 and Procedure2 can have business logic implemented in it.
Create PROCEDURE Procedure1 AS BEGIN Exec Procedure2 END
Q. Does the data stored in the stored procedure increase access time or execution time? Explain
Answer: Data stored in stored procedures can be retrieved much faster than the data stored in the SQL database. Data can be precompiled and stored in stored procedures. This reduces the time gap between query and compiling as the data has been pre-compiled and stored in the procedure.
Q. Can a Stored Procedure contain a return value?
Answer: Procedures may or may not return values.
Q. Can a View be active if the Base table is dropped?
Ans: No, the view cannot be active in the parent table is dropped.
Q. What is a One-Many Relationship in SQL?
Answer: In a One-Many relationship, a record in One Table can be associated or related to Many records in another table.
Q. What is a Natural Join?
Answer: A Natural join by default is an Inner Join that creates an implicit join based on the common columns in the two tables being joined:
A NATURAL JOIN can be an INNER join, a LEFT OUTER join, or a RIGHT OUTER join. The default is INNER join.
If the tables COUNTRIES and CITIES have two common columns named COUNTRY and COUNTRY_ISO_CODE, the following two SELECT statements are equivalent:
SELECT * FROM COUNTRIES NATURAL JOIN CITIES
SELECT * FROM COUNTRIES JOIN CITIES
USING (COUNTRY, COUNTRY_ISO_CODE)
Q. What is a Cross Join?
Answer: In a SQL cross join, a combination of every row from the two tables is included in the result set. This is also called Cross Product Join. For example, if table A has ten rows and table B has 20 rows, the result set will have 10 * 20 = 200 rows provided there is NOWHERE clause in the SQL statement.
Q. What are the subsets of SQL?
Answer:
The following are the subsets of SQL
- DDL(Data Definition Language): Includes SQL commands like CREATE, ALTER, and DELETE.
- DML(Data Manipulation Language): Accesses and manipulates data Uses INSERT, UPDATE commands
- DCL(Data Control Language): Controls access to the database. Uses commands like GRANT and REVOKE.
Q. Distinguish between a table and a field in SQL.
Answer: The collection of data organized in the form of columns and rows refers to the table. The number of columns in a table refers to the field.
Table: Employee_Details
Fields: Emp_id, Emp_name, Emp_dept, Emp_salary
Q. Explain SQL constraints?
Answer: Constraints are used to specify the rules of data type in a table.
They can be specified while creating and altering the table.
The following are the constraints in SQL:
- NOT NULL
- CHECK
- DEFAULT
- UNIQUE
- PRIMARY KEY
- FOREIGN KEY
Q. What is data integrity?
Answer: Data integrity defines the accuracy, consistency, and reliability of data that is stored in the database.
There are four kinds of data integrity:
- Row integrity
- Column integrity
- Referential integrity
- User-defined integrity
Q. What are entities and relationship
Answer:
- Entity: A person, place, or any real-world thing that can be represented as a table is called an entity.
Example: Employee table represents the details of an employee in an organization.
- Relationship: Relationship defines the dependency that entities share amongst each other.
Example: Employee name, id, salary might belong to the same or different tables.
Q. Write the SQL query to get the current date.
Answer:
SELECT CURDATE();
Q. What is the TRUNCATE command? How is it different from the DELETE command?
Answer:
| DELETE | TRUNCATE |
| DML command | DDL command |
| We can use WHERE clause | We cannot use WHERE clause |
| Deletes a row from the table. | Deletes all rows from the table. |
| We can rollback. | We cannot rollback. |
Q. What is the difference between null, zero and blank space?
Answer: NULL refers to a value that is unknown, not available, unapplicable or unassigned. While zero is a number and blank space is treated as a character.
Q. : Which function is used to return the remainder in a division operator in SQL?
Answer: The MOD function returns the remainder in the division operation.
Q. What are case manipulation functions?
Answer: Case manipulation functions converts the existing data in the table to lower, upper or mixed case characters.
Q. What are the different case manipulation functions in SQL?
Answer:
- LOWER: converts all the characters to lowercase.
- UPPER: converts all the characters to uppercase.
- INITCAP: converts initial character of each word to uppercase
Q. What are the character manipulation functions?
Answer: Character manipulation functions alter, extract and change the character string.
Q. What are the different character manipulation functions?
Answer:
- CONCAT: joins two or more string values.
- SUBSTR: extracts string of a specific length.
- LENGTH: returns the length of the string
- INSTR: returns the position of the specific character.
- LPAD: padding of the left-side character value for right-justified value.
- RPAD: padding of right-side character value for left-justified value.
- TRIM: removes the defined character from beginning and end or both.
- REPLACE: replaces a specific sequence of characters with another sequence of characters.
Q. Define inconsistent dependency.
Answer: The difficulty of accessing data as the path may be broken or missing defines inconsistent dependency. Inconsistent dependency enables users to search for data in the wrong different table which afterward results in an error as an output.
Question: What are the different operators in SQL?
Answer:
- Arithmetic
- Comparison
- Logical
Q. What are GROUP functions? Why do we need them?
Answer: Group functions work on a set of rows and return a single result per group. The popularly used group functions are AVG, MAX, MIN, SUM, VARIANCE, COUNT
Q. Distinguish between BETWEEN and IN conditional operators.
Answer: BETWEEN- Displays the rows based on range of values
IN- Checks for values contained in a specific set of values.
Example:
SELECT * FROM Students where ROLL_NO BETWEEN 10 AND 50;
SELECT * FROM students where ROLL_NO IN (8,15,25);
Q. What is the MERGE statement?
Answer: The statement enables conditional updates or inserts into the table. It updates the row if it exists or inserts the row if it does not exist.
Q. Explain recursive stored procedure.
Answer: Stored procedure calling itself until it reaches some boundary condition is a recursive stored procedure. It enables the programmers to use a set of code n number of times.
Q. How can dynamic SQL be executed?
Answer: It can be executed by the following ways:
- By executing the query with parameters.
- By using EXEC
- By using sp_executesql
Q. Define Cursor
Answer: Cursor is a control that allows traversal over the rows and records of the table. It acts as a pointer to a row in a set of rows. It is used for traversing like retrieval, addition, and removal of database records.
Q. What is the stored procedure?
Answer: It is a function consisting of many SQL statements to access the database system. Several SQL statements are consolidated into a stored procedure and are executed wherever and whenever required.
Q. What do you understand by Auto Increment?
Answer: This keyword allows a new unique number to be generated whenever a new record is inserted into the table. It can be used where we need the PRIMARY KEY.
Q. What is a Data warehouse?
Answer: Data from multiple sources of information is stored in a central repository called Data warehouse. Data warehouses have subsets of data called data marts. The data stored is transformed and used for online mining and processing.
Q. What are user-defined functions?
Answer: Functions written to use the specific logic whenever required are user-defined functions. It avoids redundancy by avoiding writing the same logic again.
Q. Mention the types user-defined functions?
Answer: There are three types of user-defined functions:
- Scalar functions
- Inline Table-valued functions
- Multi statement valued functions
Q. What is ALIAS command?
Answer: This command provides another name to a table or a column. It can be used in WHERE clause of a SQL query using the as keyword.
Example:
SELECT S.StudentID, E.Result from student S, Exam as E where S.StudentID = E.StudentID
S and E are alias names for student table and exam table respectively.
Q. What is Collation?
Answer: Collation is defined as the set of rules that determines how to store and compare data.
Q. Mention the different types of collation sensitivity.
Answer: The following are the types of collation sensitivity:
- Case
- Kana
- Width
- Accent
Q. What are STUFF and REPLACE functions?
Answer:
STUFF: overwriteS existing character or inserts a string into another string.
Syntax:
STUFF(string_expression,start, length, replacement_characters)
REPLACE: replaces the existing characters of all the occurrences.
Syntax:
REPLACE (string_expression, search_string, replacement_string)
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